Assessing unintended human-mediated dispersal using visitation networks.
Abstract
1. Human visitors are associated with the unintended dispersal of weeds, seeds and pathogens across ecological communities. With the increasing popularity of nature-based tourism, access to protected areas has increased, in turn increasing the risks of unintended dispersal of exotic species to these areas. 2. Here, we assess the potential contribution of both international and domestic visitors travelling within New Zealand to the spread of exotic species. To get an overview of the visitors' travelling patterns across the country, we constructed visitation networks at two spatial scales-a regional scale (which is a coarse scale) and a local territorial scale (which is a finer scale). 3.We then used a Mixed Membership Stochastic Block Model to identify characteristic groups of visitors and places based on the similarities of the visitors' travelling patterns across the country. Overall, we found that there are 10 characteristic groups of visitors travelling to 12 characteristic groups of places at the regional scale and 6 characteristic groups of visitors travelling to 6 characteristic groups of places at the territorial scale. 4. The resulting characteristic travelling patterns of the visitors across New Zealand further allowed us to estimate the different visitor groups' likelihood to travel to protected areas. Overall, we found that some visitor groups are much more likely than others to travel to protected areas of high protection status, at both spatial scales. 5. Synthesis and applications. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for human behaviour-that is, understanding how visitors travel to places-when assessing human-mediated dispersal. More specifically, we illustrate how to assess the relative contribution of a potential vector dispersing exotic species based on their travelling patterns-especially in cases where the target exotic species are not yet identified or when there is limited information regarding the dispersal routes of exotic species and their potential vectors. As a result, our work offers a holistic perspective on human-mediated dispersal of exotic species. Moreover, it provides a potential baseline against which both field biologists and practitioners can identify areas that would benefit from further investigation to better understand invasion processes in their focal systems.